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chest","en":"","layer":"vessels","sub":"artery","side":"L","region":"chest","key":false,"quiz":false,"color":"#d8404a","c":[0.0075,1.3101,-0.0275],"r":0.0356,"tris":148,"heFull":"Left arteries of the chest"},{"id":"chest-arteries-r","he":"Arteries of the chest","en":"","layer":"vessels","sub":"artery","side":"R","region":"chest","key":false,"quiz":false,"color":"#d8404a","c":[-0.0107,1.3473,-0.0196],"r":0.0757,"tris":210,"heFull":"Right arteries of the chest"},{"id":"pelvis-arteries-l","he":"Arteries of the pelvis","en":"","layer":"vessels","sub":"artery","side":"L","region":"pelvis","key":false,"quiz":false,"color":"#d8404a","c":[0.1061,0.8548,-0.0077],"r":0.0603,"tris":350,"heFull":"Left arteries of the pelvis"},{"id":"pelvis-arteries-r","he":"Arteries of the pelvis","en":"","layer":"vessels","sub":"artery","side":"R","region":"pelvis","key":false,"quiz":false,"color":"#d8404a","c":[-0.1062,0.8547,-0.0077],"r":0.0606,"tris":350,"heFull":"Right arteries of the pelvis"},{"id":"abdomen-veins-l","he":"Veins of the abdomen","en":"","layer":"vessels","sub":"vein","side":"L","region":"abdomen","key":false,"quiz":false,"color":"#3f6fd8","c":[0.0463,1.1558,0.0166],"r":0.1419,"tris":608,"heFull":"Left veins of the abdomen"},{"id":"abdomen-veins-r","he":"Veins of the abdomen","en":"","layer":"vessels","sub":"vein","side":"R","region":"abdomen","key":false,"quiz":false,"color":"#3f6fd8","c":[-0.043,1.1056,-0.0262],"r":0.1258,"tris":406,"heFull":"Right veins of the abdomen"},{"id":"chest-veins-l","he":"Veins of the chest","en":"","layer":"vessels","sub":"vein","side":"L","region":"chest","key":false,"quiz":false,"color":"#3f6fd8","c":[0.0797,1.2687,-0.0074],"r":0.1798,"tris":1150,"heFull":"Left veins of the chest"},{"id":"chest-veins-r","he":"Veins of the chest","en":"","layer":"vessels","sub":"vein","side":"R","region":"chest","key":false,"quiz":false,"color":"#3f6fd8","c":[-0.0779,1.2686,-0.0091],"r":0.1808,"tris":1170,"heFull":"Right veins of the chest"},{"id":"leg-veins-l","he":"Veins of the lower limb","en":"","layer":"vessels","sub":"vein","side":"L","region":"leg","key":false,"quiz":false,"color":"#3f6fd8","c":[0.1182,0.0297,0.0504],"r":0.0387,"tris":264,"heFull":"Left veins of the lower limb"},{"id":"leg-veins-r","he":"Veins of the lower limb","en":"","layer":"vessels","sub":"vein","side":"R","region":"leg","key":false,"quiz":false,"color":"#3f6fd8","c":[-0.0992,0.3531,0.0357],"r":0.4432,"tris":358,"heFull":"Right veins of the lower limb"}],"content":{"heart":{"where":"In the chest, in the center, behind the sternum and between the two lungs, just above the diaphragm. About two-thirds of the heart lies to the left of the midline, and its tip (the apex) points left, forward and down, roughly at the level of the space between the fifth and sixth ribs. The aorta and the pulmonary trunk emerge from its top.","role":"A muscular pump with four chambers: two atria and two ventricles. The right side of the heart sends oxygen-poor blood to the lungs, and the left side sends oxygen-rich blood to the whole body. The coronary arteries on the surface of the heart supply the heart muscle itself.","clinical":["Pressing pain behind the sternum, sometimes radiating to the left arm, jaw or back, can occur in coronary heart disease.","Examined by listening with a stethoscope, ECG, echocardiography and blood tests.","Common conditions: coronary heart disease, heart failure, arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation, and valve diseases."],"fact":"The heart beats about 100,000 times a day and pumps about five liters of blood per minute at rest."},"lung-l":{"where":"On the left side of the chest, inside the rib cage. Its apex rises slightly above the inner third of the clavicle, to the base of the neck, and its base sits on the dome of the left side of the diaphragm. Between the two lungs is the mediastinum, which contains the heart. Most of the heart leans to the left, so the anterior border of the left lung has a notch, the cardiac notch, and it is slightly smaller than the right lung. The left lung has two lobes, upper and lower.","role":"Exchanges gases: oxygen from the air passes into the blood, and carbon dioxide passes from the blood into the air that is exhaled.","clinical":["Pain on the left side of the chest that worsens with deep breathing can occur in pneumonia or pleurisy.","Examined by listening with a stethoscope, chest X-ray, CT scan and pulmonary function tests.","Common conditions: pneumonia, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer."],"fact":"The surface area of all the air sacs in both lungs together is roughly as large as half a tennis court."},"lung-r":{"where":"On the right side of the chest, inside the rib cage. Its apex rises slightly above the inner third of the clavicle, to the base of the neck, and its base sits on the dome of the right side of the diaphragm. The liver pushes the right dome upward from below, so the right lung is slightly shorter and wider than the left. Between it and the left lung is the mediastinum, which contains the heart, trachea, esophagus and the great blood vessels. The right lung has three lobes: upper, middle and lower.","role":"Exchanges gases between air and blood: takes in oxygen and releases carbon dioxide.","clinical":["An inhaled foreign object more often enters the right bronchus, because it is wider, shorter and steeper than the left.","Examined by listening with a stethoscope, chest X-ray and CT.","Common conditions: pneumonia, including aspiration pneumonia from material entering from the mouth, which often appears in the right lower lobe, asthma and pulmonary embolism."],"fact":"The right lung holds about 55% of total lung volume."},"bronchial-tree-l":{"where":"Inside the left lung. It continues from the left main bronchus after it enters the lung at the hilum, and branches again and again: into two lobar bronchi, then segmental bronchi, and progressively thinner branches, down to the bronchioles and air sacs.","role":"Carries air from the trachea to the air sacs, where gas exchange occurs, and back. Mucus and cilia on the wall trap dust and bacteria and clear them upward.","clinical":["A cough with sputum can occur in inflammation of the bronchi (bronchitis).","Examined by bronchoscopy: a thin tube with a camera inserted through the nose or mouth into the bronchi, and also by chest CT."],"fact":"From the trachea to the air sacs, the airways branch about 23 times."},"bronchial-tree-r":{"where":"Inside the right lung. It continues from the right main bronchus after it enters the lung at the hilum, and branches again and again: into three lobar bronchi, then segmental bronchi, and progressively thinner branches, down to the bronchioles and air sacs.","role":"Carries air from the trachea to the air sacs, where gas exchange occurs, and back. Mucus and cilia on the wall trap dust and bacteria and clear them upward.","clinical":["A cough with sputum can occur in inflammation of the bronchi (bronchitis).","Examined by bronchoscopy: a thin tube with a camera inserted through the nose or mouth into the bronchi, and also by chest CT."],"fact":"From the trachea to the air sacs, the airways branch about 23 times."},"trachea":{"where":"In the front of the neck and the upper chest, at the midline, below the larynx and in front of the esophagus. At the level of the sternal angle, roughly opposite the fourth or fifth thoracic vertebra, it splits into the two main bronchi.","role":"An airway that carries air from the larynx to the lungs. C-shaped cartilage rings keep it open, and cilia on the wall clear mucus and dust upward.","clinical":["A dry cough and pain behind the sternum can occur in inflammation of the trachea.","Examined by chest X-ray, CT and bronchoscopy.","Common conditions: airway infections, narrowing after prolonged ventilation, and an inhaled foreign object."],"fact":"It is about 10 to 12 cm long and about two centimeters in diameter."},"esophagus":{"where":"A muscular tube that leaves the pharynx in the neck, descends through the chest behind the trachea and the heart and in front of the spine, and passes through the diaphragm to the stomach. In its lower part it tilts slightly to the left.","role":"Carries food from the mouth to the stomach by waves of contraction (peristalsis). At its lower end a sphincter muscle prevents stomach contents from rising back up.","clinical":["Heartburn, a burning sensation behind the sternum, can occur in gastroesophageal reflux.","Examined by gastroscopy and a barium swallow study.","Common conditions: reflux, esophagitis, Barrett's esophagus and swallowing disorders."],"fact":"It is about 25 cm long, and food passes through it in about five to ten seconds."},"diaphragm":{"where":"A muscular dome that separates the chest from the abdomen. Above it are the heart and lungs, and below it are the liver on the right and the stomach and spleen on the left. The right dome is slightly higher than the left because of the liver beneath it.","role":"The main muscle of breathing. When it contracts it descends and expands the chest, drawing air into the lungs; when it relaxes it rises and air flows out. The esophagus, the aorta and the inferior vena cava pass through it.","clinical":["Hiccups are caused by sudden contractions of the diaphragm.","Pain originating below the diaphragm can be felt in the shoulder, because its nerve arises from the neck.","Examined by chest X-ray, ultrasound and CT.","Common conditions: hiatal hernia, in which part of the stomach rises into the chest through the esophageal opening."],"fact":"The diaphragm is innervated by the phrenic nerve, which arises from the third to fifth cervical spinal cord segments."},"liver":{"where":"In the right upper quadrant of the abdomen, below the diaphragm, largely protected by the lower right ribs. Its left lobe extends past the midline, above the stomach. The gallbladder lies beneath it, and the right kidney lies behind it.","role":"The largest internal organ in the body. It breaks down and detoxifies toxins and medications, produces bile for digesting fats, stores sugar as glycogen, and produces blood proteins, including clotting factors.","clinical":["Pain or tenderness in the right upper quadrant can occur in liver or gallbladder disease.","Yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice) can occur with liver or bile duct damage.","Examined by blood tests (liver function tests), ultrasound and CT.","Common conditions: fatty liver, viral hepatitis and cirrhosis."],"fact":"The liver can regenerate: even after removal of a large part of it, it returns to its original size within weeks."},"gallbladder":{"where":"In the right upper quadrant of the abdomen, attached to the lower surface of the liver, roughly below the edge of the right costal margin. The cystic duct connects it to the bile ducts leading to the duodenum.","role":"A small sac that stores and concentrates the bile produced by the liver, and releases it into the duodenum after a meal, especially a fatty meal.","clinical":["Pain in the right upper quadrant after a fatty meal, sometimes radiating to the right shoulder, can occur with gallstones.","Examined by abdominal ultrasound.","Common conditions: gallstones and inflammation of the gallbladder."],"fact":"Its volume is about 30 to 50 ml, but the liver produces more than half a liter of bile a day."},"stomach":{"where":"In the upper abdomen, mostly to the left of the midline, below the diaphragm and the left ribs. The liver is to its right, the spleen is to its left and behind it, and the pancreas is behind it.","role":"A muscular sac that receives food from the esophagus, mixes it with acid and enzymes, and gradually passes it into the duodenum.","clinical":["Pain in the upper abdomen, below the sternum, can occur in inflammation of the stomach lining or in an ulcer.","Examined by gastroscopy and tests for Helicobacter pylori.","Common conditions: gastritis, peptic ulcer and hiatal hernia."],"fact":"The surface cells of the stomach lining renew every few days, which protects it from the acid it itself produces."},"spleen":{"where":"In the left upper quadrant of the abdomen, behind the stomach and below the diaphragm, protected by ribs 9 to 11 on the left. It touches the left kidney and the tail of the pancreas.","role":"An organ of the immune and blood systems: filters the blood, breaks down old red blood cells, and produces an immune response against bacteria in the blood.","clinical":["Pain in the left upper quadrant after an injury to the lower left ribs can occur with a ruptured spleen.","Examined by palpation, ultrasound and CT.","Common conditions: enlarged spleen in infections, such as mononucleosis, and in blood diseases."],"fact":"It is possible to live without a spleen, but the body becomes more vulnerable to infections from certain bacteria."},"pancreas":{"where":"Behind the stomach, across the upper abdomen, against the back wall of the abdomen. Its head lies on the right, within the curve of the duodenum, and its body and tail extend to the left as far as the spleen.","role":"A dual gland: it releases digestive juices into the duodenum, and produces hormones such as insulin and glucagon that regulate blood sugar levels.","clinical":["Severe upper abdominal pain radiating to the back can occur in pancreatitis.","Examined using blood tests (amylase and lipase), ultrasound and CT.","Common conditions: pancreatitis, diabetes, and pancreatic tumors."],"fact":"The pancreas secretes about one and a half liters of digestive juices per day."},"duodenum":{"where":"The first part of the small intestine, shaped like the letter C, in the upper abdomen, mostly to the right of the midline. It begins where the stomach empties and curves around the head of the pancreas; the bile duct and pancreatic duct both empty into it.","role":"Receives food from the stomach and mixes it with bile and pancreatic juices, starting the breakdown of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.","clinical":["Upper abdominal pain that changes with eating can occur in duodenal ulcer.","Examined using gastroscopy.","Common conditions: duodenal ulcer and celiac disease, which damages the lining of the small intestine."],"fact":"The name duodenum comes from its length: about twelve finger-widths, roughly 25 cm."},"jejunum":{"where":"The middle part of the small intestine, continuing from the duodenum. Its loops lie mainly in the upper left part of the abdominal cavity, below the transverse colon.","role":"Most nutrients are absorbed here: sugars, amino acids, fats, and vitamins. Its wall is relatively thick and rich in blood vessels.","clinical":["Abdominal pain, bloating, and diarrhea can occur in diseases of the small intestine.","Examined using blood tests, capsule endoscopy, and MRI of the small intestine.","Common conditions: celiac disease and intestinal infections."],"fact":"The entire small intestine, from the duodenum to the end of the ileum, is about three to six meters long."},"ileum":{"where":"The last and longest part of the small intestine. Its loops lie mainly in the lower abdomen and pelvis, and it ends in the right lower quadrant, where it joins the colon.","role":"Absorbs what was not absorbed earlier, especially vitamin B12 and bile salts. Its wall contains a large amount of lymphatic tissue belonging to the immune system.","clinical":["Pain in the right lower quadrant with diarrhea can occur in Crohn's disease, which often affects the end of the ileum.","Examined using colonoscopy, which reaches its end, MRI of the bowel, and blood tests.","Common conditions: Crohn's disease and bowel obstruction."],"fact":"At the end of the ileum there is a valve, the ileocecal valve, which prevents contents of the colon from flowing back into the small intestine."},"appendix":{"where":"In the right lower quadrant of the abdomen: a small tube, closed at its tip, extending from the bottom of the colon (the cecum), near where the small intestine enters it. Its exact position varies from person to person.","role":"A narrow outgrowth of the colon, with lymphatic tissue in its wall. It may serve as a reservoir for beneficial gut bacteria.","clinical":["Pain that starts around the navel and moves to the right lower quadrant, with fever and vomiting, can occur in appendicitis.","Examined using physical examination, blood tests, ultrasound, and CT.","Common conditions: acute appendicitis, one of the most common causes of emergency abdominal surgery."],"fact":"Its length is usually 6 to 10 cm."},"colon-ascending":{"where":"On the right side of the abdomen, along the right wall. It begins below, in the right lower quadrant, at the cecum, where the small intestine enters, and rises up to below the liver, where it bends to the left (the hepatic flexure). In the model, the cecum is the lower part of this section.","role":"Receives the liquid contents arriving from the small intestine, absorbs water and salts from it, and begins to form solid stool.","clinical":["Pain in the right lower quadrant can also occur in diseases of the cecum and the ascending colon, not only in appendicitis.","Examined using colonoscopy and CT.","Common conditions: polyps, tumors, and inflammation of the colon."],"fact":"The cecum got its name because it is a sac closed at its lower end."},"colon-transverse":{"where":"Crosses the upper abdomen from right to left, below the liver, stomach, and spleen, and above the loops of the small intestine. It is relatively mobile and hangs loosely, so it sometimes sags low.","role":"Continues to absorb water and salts and moves the contents on to the descending colon.","clinical":["Bloating and abdominal pain that come and go can occur in irritable bowel syndrome.","Examined using colonoscopy.","Common conditions: polyps and tumors of the colon."],"fact":"Three muscular bands (taeniae coli) run along the entire colon, and because of them its wall is gathered into pouches."},"colon-descending":{"where":"On the left side of the abdomen, along the left wall. It begins below the spleen (the splenic flexure), descends to the left lower quadrant, and continues there as the sigmoid colon, which curves into the pelvis and connects to the rectum. In the model, the sigmoid colon is included in this section.","role":"Stores and moves the formed stool downward, toward the rectum.","clinical":["Pain in the left lower quadrant, sometimes with fever, can occur in diverticulitis, which is common in the sigmoid colon.","Examined using colonoscopy, sigmoidoscopy, and CT.","Common conditions: colonic diverticula, polyps, and tumors."],"fact":"A large portion of colon tumors occur in its left side, in the sigmoid colon and rectum."},"rectum":{"where":"The last part of the colon, in the pelvis, in front of the sacrum and coccyx and behind the bladder and prostate. It ends in the anal canal.","role":"Stores stool until elimination. When it fills, it sends a sensation of the need to defecate.","clinical":["Fresh blood in the stool can occur in hemorrhoids, an anal fissure, or diseases of the rectum.","Examined using rectal examination, sigmoidoscopy, and colonoscopy.","Common conditions: hemorrhoids, inflammation of the rectum, and tumors."],"fact":"In men, the prostate can be felt through the front wall of the rectum."},"kidney-l":{"where":"On the left side of the lower back, behind the abdominal cavity, roughly at the level of vertebrae T12 to L3, partly protected by ribs 11 and 12. Above it is the adrenal gland, and in front of it are the stomach, spleen, and tail of the pancreas. It sits slightly higher than the right kidney.","role":"Filters the blood and produces urine, regulates the body's water and salt levels and blood pressure, and secretes hormones such as erythropoietin, which stimulates production of red blood cells.","clinical":["Pain on the left side of the lower back radiating to the groin can occur in kidney stones.","Examined using urine tests, blood tests (creatinine), ultrasound, and CT.","Common conditions: kidney stones, kidney inflammation, and chronic kidney disease."],"fact":"The two kidneys together filter about 180 liters of fluid per day, and only about one and a half liters of it leaves as urine."},"kidney-r":{"where":"On the right side of the lower back, behind the abdominal cavity, roughly at the level of vertebrae T12 to L3. Above it are the adrenal gland and the liver, and in front of it are the duodenum and the ascending colon as well. Because of the liver, it sits slightly lower than the left kidney.","role":"Filters the blood and produces urine, regulates the body's water and salt levels and blood pressure, and secretes hormones such as erythropoietin, which stimulates production of red blood cells.","clinical":["Pain on the right side of the lower back radiating to the groin can occur in kidney stones.","Examined using urine tests, blood tests (creatinine), ultrasound, and CT.","Common conditions: kidney stones, kidney inflammation, and chronic kidney disease."],"fact":"The right kidney is usually one to two centimeters lower than the left, because of the liver above it."},"adrenal-l":{"where":"Above the upper pole of the left kidney, behind the abdominal cavity. It is crescent-shaped, with the stomach and pancreas in front of it.","role":"A hormonal gland. Its outer layer (cortex) produces cortisol, aldosterone, and sex hormones, and its core (medulla) produces adrenaline and noradrenaline for the stress response.","clinical":["High blood pressure that is hard to control can occur with excess hormone production by the gland.","Examined using blood and urine tests for hormones, and CT.","Common conditions: small nodules discovered incidentally on imaging, Cushing's syndrome, and adrenal insufficiency."]},"adrenal-r":{"where":"Above the upper pole of the right kidney, behind the abdominal cavity. It is triangular in shape, between the liver and the inferior vena cava.","role":"A hormonal gland. Its cortex produces cortisol, aldosterone and sex hormones, and its core produces adrenaline and noradrenaline for the stress response.","clinical":["High blood pressure that is hard to control can appear with excess hormone production by the gland.","Checked using blood and urine tests for hormones and CT.","Common conditions: small nodules found incidentally on imaging, Cushing's syndrome and adrenal insufficiency."]},"ureter-l":{"where":"A thin tube that descends from the left kidney along the posterior abdominal wall, in front of the psoas major muscle, crosses the pelvic blood vessels and enters the bladder from behind.","role":"Carries urine from the kidney to the bladder in contraction waves.","clinical":["Severe pain in the back and side, radiating to the left groin, can appear when a kidney stone gets stuck in the ureter.","Checked using non-contrast CT and ultrasound.","Common conditions: ureteral stones and strictures."],"fact":"Its length is about 25 to 30 cm."},"ureter-r":{"where":"A thin tube that descends from the right kidney along the posterior abdominal wall, in front of the psoas major muscle, crosses the pelvic blood vessels and enters the bladder from behind.","role":"Carries urine from the kidney to the bladder in contraction waves.","clinical":["Severe pain in the back and side, radiating to the right groin, can appear when a kidney stone gets stuck in the ureter.","Checked using non-contrast CT and ultrasound.","Common conditions: ureteral stones and strictures."],"fact":"Its length is about 25 to 30 cm."},"bladder":{"where":"In the pelvis, in the midline, behind the pubic bone. In a man, as in this model, the rectum is behind it and the prostate is below it. When full, it rises above the pubic bone into the lower abdomen.","role":"A muscular reservoir for urine. It fills gradually, and during urination the muscle in its wall contracts and urine exits through the urethra.","clinical":["Burning and frequency during urination can appear with a urinary tract infection.","Checked using urine test, ultrasound and cystoscopy.","Common conditions: bladder inflammation, overactive bladder and urinary retention."],"fact":"Its normal capacity is about 400 to 600 mL."},"prostate":{"where":"In the male pelvis, below the bladder and in front of the rectum. The urethra passes through it.","role":"A gland that produces part of the seminal fluid and helps the movement of sperm cells.","clinical":["A weak urine stream and frequent urination at night can appear with benign enlargement of the prostate, common with age.","Checked using rectal exam, PSA blood test and ultrasound.","Common conditions: benign enlargement, prostatitis and prostate cancer."],"fact":"In a young man it is about the size of a walnut."},"thyroid-cartilage":{"where":"In the front of the neck, in the midline, above the cricoid cartilage and below the hyoid bone. In men its protrusion is visible from outside and is called the \"Adam's apple.\" The thyroid gland, which is not in this model, lies just below it, on both sides of the trachea.","role":"The largest cartilage of the larynx. It protects the vocal cords and serves as an attachment point for the muscles that stretch them.","clinical":["Prolonged hoarseness can appear in diseases of the vocal cords inside the larynx.","The larynx is checked using laryngoscopy, and the thyroid gland below it using blood tests for thyroid hormones and ultrasound.","Common thyroid conditions: hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism and nodules."],"fact":"The thyroid gland, located below this cartilage, is named after it."},"frontal-lobe-l":{"where":"The front part of the left cerebral hemisphere, behind the forehead and above the eye socket, in front of the central sulcus. The precentral gyrus at its posterior edge is the motor cortex.","role":"Responsible for planning, decision-making, concentration, impulse control and personality, and for voluntary movement. It controls movements of the right side of the body, and in most people it also contains Broca's area, which produces speech.","clinical":["Weakness in the right arm and leg can appear with damage to the motor cortex of this lobe, because each side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.","Checked using neurological examination, CT and MRI of the head.","Common conditions: stroke, head injury and tumors."],"fact":"The frontal lobe is the last to finish maturing, only around age 25."},"frontal-lobe-r":{"where":"The front part of the right cerebral hemisphere, behind the forehead and above the eye socket, in front of the central sulcus. The precentral gyrus at its posterior edge is the motor cortex.","role":"Responsible for planning, decision-making, concentration, impulse control and personality, and for voluntary movement. It controls movements of the left side of the body.","clinical":["Weakness in the left arm and leg can appear with damage to the motor cortex of this lobe, because each side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.","Checked using neurological examination, CT and MRI of the head.","Common conditions: stroke, head injury and tumors."],"fact":"The frontal lobe is the last to finish maturing, only around age 25."},"parietal-lobe-l":{"where":"The upper and posterior part of the left cerebral hemisphere, beneath the parietal bone, behind the central sulcus and in front of the occipital lobe.","role":"Processes sensation, such as touch, pain, temperature and body position, and combines it with vision into a picture of space. The gyrus behind the central sulcus is the sensory cortex for the right side of the body.","clinical":["Decreased sensation on the right side of the body can appear with damage to this lobe.","Damage to the left parietal lobe can cause difficulties with reading, writing and arithmetic.","Checked using neurological examination and MRI."]},"parietal-lobe-r":{"where":"The upper and posterior part of the right cerebral hemisphere, beneath the parietal bone, behind the central sulcus and in front of the occipital lobe.","role":"Processes sensation, such as touch, pain, temperature and body position, and combines it with vision into a picture of space. The gyrus behind the central sulcus is the sensory cortex for the left side of the body.","clinical":["Decreased sensation on the left side of the body can appear with damage to this lobe.","Damage to the right parietal lobe can cause neglect of the left side of space and of the body.","Checked using neurological examination and MRI."]},"temporal-lobe-l":{"where":"On the side of the head, the lower part of the left cerebral hemisphere, below the temporal bone and above the ear. The lateral sulcus separates it from the frontal lobe.","role":"Processes hearing, memory and emotion, and recognizes faces and objects. In most people it contains Wernicke's area, responsible for language comprehension.","clinical":["Seizures with a strange sensation, a nonexistent smell or a feeling of \"déjà vu\" can appear with temporal lobe epilepsy.","Checked using EEG and MRI.","Common conditions: epilepsy, stroke and tumors."]},"temporal-lobe-r":{"where":"On the side of the head, the lower part of the right cerebral hemisphere, below the temporal bone and above the ear. The lateral sulcus separates it from the frontal lobe.","role":"Processes hearing, memory and emotion, and recognizes faces and objects. It is especially important for recognizing faces, sounds and music.","clinical":["Seizures with a strange sensation, a nonexistent smell or a feeling of \"déjà vu\" can appear with temporal lobe epilepsy.","Checked using EEG and MRI.","Common conditions: epilepsy, stroke and tumors."]},"occipital-lobe-l":{"where":"The back part of the left cerebral hemisphere, below the occipital bone and above the cerebellum.","role":"The brain's vision center. It processes what both eyes see in the right half of the visual field.","clinical":["Loss of the right half of the visual field in both eyes can occur with damage to this lobe.","Checked using visual field testing and MRI.","Common conditions: stroke in the occipital area and migraine with aura."]},"occipital-lobe-r":{"where":"The back part of the right cerebral hemisphere, below the occipital bone and above the cerebellum.","role":"The brain's vision center. It processes what both eyes see in the left half of the visual field.","clinical":["Loss of the left half of the visual field in both eyes can occur with damage to this lobe.","Checked using visual field testing and MRI.","Common conditions: stroke in the occipital area and migraine with aura."]},"cerebellum":{"where":"In the back and lower part of the skull, below the occipital lobes and behind the brainstem.","role":"Coordinates movement, balance and posture, and fine-tunes precise movements such as writing and walking.","clinical":["Unsteady gait, dizziness and imprecise movements can occur with damage to the cerebellum.","Checked using a neurological exam, for example the finger-to-nose test, and MRI.","Common conditions: stroke, the effect of alcohol, and tumors."],"fact":"The cerebellum weighs about a tenth of the brain's weight, but contains more than half of the brain's nerve cells."},"midbrain":{"where":"The upper part of the brainstem, in the middle of the head, between the cerebrum above and the pons below.","role":"Relays messages between the cerebrum and the spinal cord, and controls eye and pupil reflexes, and part of hearing and movement.","clinical":["Changes in pupil size and eye movements can occur with pressure on the midbrain.","Checked using a neurological exam and MRI.","Common conditions: Parkinson's disease, in which the nerve cells of the substantia nigra in the midbrain are damaged."]},"pons":{"where":"The middle part of the brainstem, below the midbrain and above the medulla oblongata, in front of the cerebellum.","role":"A bridge of nerve pathways between the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the spinal cord. It takes part in regulating breathing and sleep, and nerves to the face and eyes emerge from it.","clinical":["Weakness on one side, double vision and difficulty speaking can occur with a stroke in the brainstem.","Checked using a neurological exam and MRI."]},"medulla-oblongata":{"where":"The lower part of the brainstem, at the base of the skull. It continues downward as the spinal cord through the foramen magnum of the occipital bone.","role":"A vital center that regulates breathing, heart rate and blood pressure, and coordinates swallowing, coughing and vomiting.","clinical":["Difficulty swallowing and speaking can occur with damage to the medulla oblongata.","Checked using a neurological exam and MRI."],"fact":"The motor pathways from the brain cross to the other side in the medulla oblongata, so each side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body."},"eyeball-l":{"where":"In the left eye socket, at the front of the skull, protected by the bones of the orbit and surrounded by six muscles that move it. The optic nerve exits from its back.","role":"The organ of vision. The cornea and lens focus light onto the retina, and the retina converts it into nerve signals that travel through the optic nerve to the brain.","clinical":["Blurred vision can occur with nearsightedness or farsightedness and with cataracts.","Checked using a visual acuity test, a fundus exam, and measurement of intraocular pressure.","Common conditions: nearsightedness, cataracts, glaucoma and diabetic retinal damage."],"fact":"The diameter of the eyeball in an adult is about 24 mm."},"eyeball-r":{"where":"In the right eye socket, at the front of the skull, protected by the bones of the orbit and surrounded by six muscles that move it. The optic nerve exits from its back.","role":"The organ of vision. The cornea and lens focus light onto the retina, and the retina converts it into nerve signals that travel through the optic nerve to the brain.","clinical":["Blurred vision can occur with nearsightedness or farsightedness and with cataracts.","Checked using a visual acuity test, a fundus exam, and measurement of intraocular pressure.","Common conditions: nearsightedness, cataracts, glaucoma and diabetic retinal damage."],"fact":"The diameter of the eyeball in an adult is about 24 mm."},"optic-nerve-l":{"where":"Exits from the back of the left eyeball, runs along the eye socket and enters the skull through the optic canal. Above the pituitary gland, the two optic nerves meet at the optic chiasm, from which the optic tract continues backward to the thalamus. In the model, this part also includes the left half of the chiasm and the left optic tract.","role":"Carries information from the retina to the brain. At the optic chiasm, the fibers coming from the inner half of each retina cross to the other side, so each side of the brain receives the image of the opposite half of the visual field.","clinical":["Decreased vision in one eye with pain on eye movement can occur with inflammation of the optic nerve.","Gradual narrowing of the visual field, from the periphery inward, can occur with glaucoma, which damages the optic nerve.","Checked with a fundus exam, visual field testing and MRI."],"fact":"Each optic nerve contains more than a million nerve fibers."},"optic-nerve-r":{"where":"Exits from the back of the right eyeball, runs along the eye socket and enters the skull through the optic canal. Above the pituitary gland, the two optic nerves meet at the optic chiasm, from which the optic tract continues backward to the thalamus. In the model, this part also includes the right half of the chiasm and the right optic tract.","role":"Carries information from the retina to the brain. At the optic chiasm, the fibers coming from the inner half of each retina cross to the other side, so each side of the brain receives the image of the opposite half of the visual field.","clinical":["Decreased vision in one eye with pain on eye movement can occur with inflammation of the optic nerve.","Gradual narrowing of the visual field, from the periphery inward, can occur with glaucoma, which damages the optic nerve.","Checked with a fundus exam, visual field testing and MRI."],"fact":"Each optic nerve contains more than a million nerve fibers."},"orbital-nerves-l":{"where":"Inside the left eye socket, around the eyeball and the muscles that move it. These nerves emerge from the brainstem and from the trigeminal nerve and enter the orbit from inside the skull through the superior orbital fissure. In the model, this part includes the ophthalmic nerve and its branches, the branches of the oculomotor nerve, the trochlear nerve, and the ciliary ganglion.","role":"The oculomotor nerve and the trochlear nerve activate most of the muscles that move the eye and the muscle that raises the upper eyelid. The ophthalmic nerve, the first branch of the trigeminal nerve, carries sensation from the eye, the forehead and the nose. The ciliary ganglion narrows the pupil in bright light and adjusts the lens for near vision.","clinical":["Double vision can occur with damage to the oculomotor nerve or the trochlear nerve, for example in diabetes or after head trauma.","A shingles rash on the forehead, upper eyelid and tip of the nose can occur when the virus reactivates in the ophthalmic nerve.","Checked by testing eye movements, the eyelids and the pupils' reaction to light."],"fact":"The trochlear nerve is the thinnest cranial nerve, and the only one that emerges from the back of the brainstem."},"orbital-nerves-r":{"where":"Inside the right eye socket, around the eyeball and the muscles that move it. These nerves emerge from the brainstem and from the trigeminal nerve and enter the orbit from inside the skull through the superior orbital fissure. In the model, this part includes the ophthalmic nerve and its branches, the branches of the oculomotor nerve, the trochlear nerve, and the ciliary ganglion.","role":"The oculomotor nerve and the trochlear nerve activate most of the muscles that move the eye and the muscle that raises the upper eyelid. The ophthalmic nerve, the first branch of the trigeminal nerve, carries sensation from the eye, the forehead and the nose. The ciliary ganglion narrows the pupil in bright light and adjusts the lens for near vision.","clinical":["Double vision can occur with damage to the oculomotor nerve or the trochlear nerve, for example in diabetes or after head trauma.","A shingles rash on the forehead, upper eyelid and tip of the nose can occur when the virus reactivates in the ophthalmic nerve.","Checked by testing eye movements, the eyelids and the pupils' reaction to light."],"fact":"The trochlear nerve is the thinnest cranial nerve, and the only one that emerges from the back of the brainstem."},"aorta-thoracic":{"where":"Arises from the left ventricle of the heart, rises slightly forward (ascending aorta), arches backward and to the left above the left main bronchus (aortic arch), and descends in the chest to the left of the spine down to the diaphragm.","role":"The largest artery in the body. Carries oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the whole body. The arteries to the head and arms branch off from its arch.","clinical":["Sudden, tearing chest pain that radiates to the back can occur in aortic dissection.","Examined using echocardiography, contrast CT, and MRI.","Common conditions: aortic aneurysm (dilation) and narrowing of the valve at its entrance."],"fact":"Its diameter at the start is about three centimeters."},"aorta-abdominal":{"where":"Continues from the thoracic aorta below the diaphragm, descends through the abdomen in front of the spine and slightly to the left of the midline, and splits at about the level of the fourth lumbar vertebra into the two common iliac arteries.","role":"Supplies blood to the abdominal organs through the celiac trunk, the mesenteric arteries, and the renal arteries, and further on also to the pelvis and legs.","clinical":["A pulsating mass in the abdomen or pain in the abdomen and back can occur in abdominal aortic aneurysm.","Examined using abdominal ultrasound and contrast CT.","Common conditions: aneurysm, more common in older male smokers, and atherosclerosis."],"fact":"The navel is located roughly above the point where the aorta splits into the two iliac arteries."},"superior-vena-cava":{"where":"In the upper chest, to the right of the midline and of the ascending aorta. It is formed by the union of the two brachiocephalic veins and descends into the right atrium of the heart.","role":"Returns oxygen-poor blood to the heart from the head, neck, arms, and upper chest.","clinical":["Swelling of the face and neck and prominent veins on the chest can occur in obstruction of the superior vena cava.","Examined using contrast CT.","The tip of a central venous catheter is usually positioned inside this vein, near its entrance to the heart."]},"inferior-vena-cava":{"where":"In the abdomen, to the right of the aorta and in front of the spine. Formed by the union of the two common iliac veins, it ascends behind the liver, passes through the diaphragm, and enters the right atrium of the heart.","role":"The largest vein in the body. Returns oxygen-poor blood to the heart from the legs, pelvis, and abdominal organs.","clinical":["Swelling in both legs can occur with pressure on the inferior vena cava or its obstruction.","Examined using ultrasound and CT.","Lying on the back in late pregnancy, the uterus can press on it, causing dizziness and a drop in blood pressure."]},"frontal-bone":{"where":"At the front of the skull. It forms the forehead and the roof of both eye sockets. Behind it are the parietal bones, and beneath it in front are the frontal lobes of the brain.","role":"Part of the skull that protects the brain. The frontal bone protects its front part, gives the forehead its shape, and contains the frontal sinus cavities.","clinical":["Pain and pressure in the forehead can occur in frontal sinusitis.","Examined using X-ray and CT of the skull and sinuses.","Common conditions: fractures from head trauma and sinusitis."],"fact":"In an infant, the frontal bone is made of two halves, which fuse during the first years of life."},"mandible":{"where":"The lower part of the face, a horseshoe-shaped bone. It connects to the temporal bones at the two jaw joints, just in front of the ears.","role":"The only bone in the skull that moves. It carries the lower teeth and enables chewing and speech.","clinical":["Pain in front of the ear during chewing can occur in jaw joint problems.","Examined using a panoramic dental X-ray and CT.","Common conditions: jaw joint disorders and fractures from facial trauma."],"fact":"The mandible is the largest and strongest bone in the face."},"vertebra-c7":{"where":"The lowest cervical vertebra, at the base of the neck. Its spinous process protrudes beneath the skin at the back of the neck and can easily be felt when the head is tilted forward.","role":"Like the other cervical vertebrae, it bears the weight of the head and protects the spinal cord. It is the transition vertebra between the cervical and thoracic spine.","clinical":["Neck pain radiating to the arm can occur in a disc bulge in the cervical spine.","Examined using X-ray, CT, and MRI.","Its protruding process serves as a landmark for counting vertebrae in a physical examination."],"fact":"Because of its protruding process, it is also called the \"vertebra prominens.\""},"vertebra-t12":{"where":"The lowest thoracic vertebra, in the back, at the level of the lower ribs. The 12th rib attaches to it, and below it the lumbar vertebrae begin.","role":"Bears weight, protects the spinal cord, and connects the thoracic spine, stiffened by the ribs, to the mobile lumbar spine.","clinical":["Sudden back pain in a person with weak bones can occur in a compression fracture of a vertebra, common in this transition area.","Examined using X-ray, CT, and MRI.","Common conditions: compression fractures in osteoporosis and fractures from trauma."]},"vertebra-l4":{"where":"A lumbar vertebra in the lower back, roughly at the level of the line connecting the crests of the two pelvic bones.","role":"The lumbar vertebrae are the largest in the spine and bear most of the body's weight. At this level the spinal cord has already ended, and nerve roots pass through the canal.","clinical":["Lower back pain radiating to the leg can occur in a disc bulge between the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebrae.","A lumbar puncture, to sample cerebrospinal fluid, is usually done in this area, because there is no longer a spinal cord there.","Examined using X-ray, CT, and MRI."]},"sacrum":{"where":"In the back part of the pelvis, between the two hip bones and below the fifth lumbar vertebra. A triangular bone formed from five fused vertebrae.","role":"Transfers the weight of the trunk to the pelvis and legs through the sacroiliac joints, and nerves to the pelvis and legs exit through its foramina.","clinical":["Pain in the lower back and buttock can occur in inflammation of the sacroiliac joints.","Examined using X-ray, CT, and MRI."],"fact":"At birth the sacrum is five separate vertebrae, which fuse into one bone in adulthood."},"sternum":{"where":"In the center of the front of the chest, a flat, long bone that can be felt along its entire length. It is made of three parts: the manubrium above, the body in the middle, and the xiphoid process at the bottom. The collarbones and rib cartilages attach to it.","role":"Closes the rib cage from the front and protects the heart and the great blood vessels.","clinical":["Pain in the sternum that worsens with pressure can occur in costal cartilage inflammation (costochondritis).","A sternal fracture can occur from direct chest trauma, such as in a car accident.","Examined using X-ray and CT."]},"clavicle-l":{"where":"At the base of the neck on the left side, a horizontal, S-shaped bone that can be felt along its entire length beneath the skin. On the inner side it connects to the sternum, and on the outer side to the scapula.","role":"Holds the shoulder away from the chest and transfers forces from the arm to the trunk skeleton. It protects the blood vessels and nerves that pass beneath it to the arm.","clinical":["Pain and swelling in the collarbone after a fall on an outstretched arm or on the shoulder can occur in a fracture, one of the most common fractures in the body.","Examined using X-ray.","Common conditions: fractures and dislocation of the joint between the collarbone and the scapula."],"fact":"The clavicle is the first bone in the embryo to begin ossifying."},"clavicle-r":{"where":"At the base of the neck on the right side, a horizontal S-shaped bone that can be felt under the skin along its whole length. On the inner side it connects to the sternum, and on the outer side to the scapula.","role":"Holds the shoulder away from the chest and transfers forces from the arm to the trunk skeleton. It protects the blood vessels and nerves that pass beneath it to the arm.","clinical":["Pain and swelling in the clavicle after a fall on an outstretched hand or on the shoulder can appear in a fracture, one of the most common fractures in the body.","Examined using an X-ray.","Common conditions: fractures and dislocation of the joint between the clavicle and the scapula."],"fact":"The clavicle is the first bone to begin ossifying in the fetus."},"scapula-l":{"where":"In the upper back, on the left side, a flat triangular bone that lies on the ribs. On its outer side is the socket of the shoulder joint, where the head of the humerus sits.","role":"A mobile base for the arm: many muscles attach to it, including the rotator cuff muscles, and it rotates on the chest wall to allow the arm to be raised above the head.","clinical":["Shoulder pain when raising the arm can appear in problems with the rotator cuff tendons, which arise from the scapula.","Examined using X-ray, ultrasound, and MRI of the shoulder.","A shoulder blade that sticks out from the back like a wing can appear in weakness of the serratus anterior muscle."]},"scapula-r":{"where":"In the upper back, on the right side, a flat triangular bone that lies on the ribs. On its outer side is the socket of the shoulder joint, where the head of the humerus sits.","role":"A mobile base for the arm: many muscles attach to it, including the rotator cuff muscles, and it rotates on the chest wall to allow the arm to be raised above the head.","clinical":["Shoulder pain when raising the arm can appear in problems with the rotator cuff tendons, which arise from the scapula.","Examined using X-ray, ultrasound, and MRI of the shoulder.","A shoulder blade that sticks out from the back like a wing can appear in weakness of the serratus anterior muscle."]},"humerus-l":{"where":"In the left arm, between the shoulder and the elbow. Its head sits in the socket of the scapula, and at the lower end it forms the elbow joint together with the radius and ulna.","role":"The long bone of the arm. It serves as a lever for the shoulder and arm muscles, such as the deltoid muscle and the biceps muscle.","clinical":["Shoulder pain after a fall in an older person can appear in a fracture of the neck of the humerus.","Weakness in extending the wrist can appear in a fracture in the middle of the bone, because the radial nerve runs right next to it.","Examined using X-ray and CT."],"fact":"The \"funny bone\" in the elbow is not actually a bone: it is the ulnar nerve, which passes behind the lower end of the humerus."},"humerus-r":{"where":"In the right arm, between the shoulder and the elbow. Its head sits in the socket of the scapula, and at the lower end it forms the elbow joint together with the radius and ulna.","role":"The long bone of the arm. It serves as a lever for the shoulder and arm muscles, such as the deltoid muscle and the biceps muscle.","clinical":["Shoulder pain after a fall in an older person can appear in a fracture of the neck of the humerus.","Weakness in extending the wrist can appear in a fracture in the middle of the bone, because the radial nerve runs right next to it.","Examined using X-ray and CT."],"fact":"The \"funny bone\" in the elbow is not actually a bone: it is the ulnar nerve, which passes behind the lower end of the humerus."},"radius-l":{"where":"In the left forearm, on the thumb side. At the upper end it is part of the elbow joint, and at the lower end it forms most of the wrist joint.","role":"Rotates around the ulna and allows the hand to be turned up and down. It carries most of the load that passes through the wrist.","clinical":["Pain and deformity in the wrist after a fall on an outstretched hand can appear in a fracture of the lower end of the radius, one of the most common fractures.","The radial pulse is felt at the wrist, on the thumb side, near the lower end of the radius.","Examined using an X-ray."]},"radius-r":{"where":"In the right forearm, on the thumb side. At the upper end it is part of the elbow joint, and at the lower end it forms most of the wrist joint.","role":"Rotates around the ulna and allows the hand to be turned up and down. It carries most of the load that passes through the wrist.","clinical":["Pain and deformity in the wrist after a fall on an outstretched hand can appear in a fracture of the lower end of the radius, one of the most common fractures.","The radial pulse is felt at the wrist, on the thumb side, near the lower end of the radius.","Examined using an X-ray."]},"ulna-l":{"where":"In the left forearm, on the little-finger side. At its upper end is the olecranon, the bump felt when leaning on the elbow.","role":"Forms, together with the humerus, the hinge joint of the elbow, which allows the arm to bend and straighten, and serves as a stable axis around which the radius rotates.","clinical":["Pain at the back of the elbow after falling on it can appear in a fracture of the olecranon.","Tingling in the little finger and ring finger can appear from pressure on the ulnar nerve, which passes at the elbow near the upper end of the ulna.","Examined using an X-ray."]},"ulna-r":{"where":"In the right forearm, on the little-finger side. At its upper end is the olecranon, the bump felt when leaning on the elbow.","role":"Forms, together with the humerus, the hinge joint of the elbow, which allows the arm to bend and straighten, and serves as a stable axis around which the radius rotates.","clinical":["Pain at the back of the elbow after falling on it can appear in a fracture of the olecranon.","Tingling in the little finger and ring finger can appear from pressure on the ulnar nerve, which passes at the elbow near the upper end of the ulna.","Examined using an X-ray."]},"hip-bone-l":{"where":"On the left side of the pelvis. It is formed from three bones that have fused together: the ilium, whose crest is felt at the waist, the ischium, on which one sits, and the pubis in front. On its outer side is the socket of the hip joint.","role":"Connects the trunk to the leg: it bears the weight of the body in standing and sitting, and together with the sacrum forms the pelvic ring that protects the pelvic organs.","clinical":["Groin pain while walking can appear in diseases of the hip joint, where the femur meets the socket in the pelvic bone.","Examined using X-ray of the pelvis, CT, and MRI.","Common conditions: pelvic fractures from severe trauma and wear of the hip joint."],"fact":"The three bones that form the hip bone fuse into a single bone only at puberty."},"hip-bone-r":{"where":"On the right side of the pelvis. It is formed from three bones that have fused together: the ilium, whose crest is felt at the waist, the ischium, on which one sits, and the pubis in front. On its outer side is the socket of the hip joint.","role":"Connects the trunk to the leg: it bears the weight of the body in standing and sitting, and together with the sacrum forms the pelvic ring that protects the pelvic organs.","clinical":["Groin pain while walking can appear in diseases of the hip joint, where the femur meets the socket in the pelvic bone.","Examined using X-ray of the pelvis, CT, and MRI.","Common conditions: pelvic fractures from severe trauma and wear of the hip joint."],"fact":"The three bones that form the hip bone fuse into a single bone only at puberty."},"femur-l":{"where":"In the left thigh, between the hip joint and the knee. Its rounded head sits in the socket of the pelvic bone, and the lower end forms the knee joint together with the tibia.","role":"The longest and strongest bone in the body. It bears the weight of the body in standing and walking and serves as a lever for the thigh muscles.","clinical":["Groin pain and difficulty standing after a fall in an older person can appear in a fracture of the neck of the femur.","Examined using X-ray, CT, and bone-density testing.","Common conditions: fracture of the neck of the femur, mainly in people with osteoporosis."],"fact":"Its length is about a quarter of the body's height."},"femur-r":{"where":"In the right thigh, between the hip joint and the knee. Its round head sits in a socket of the pelvic bone, and its lower end forms the knee joint together with the tibia.","role":"The longest and strongest bone in the body. It carries the body's weight during standing and walking and acts as a lever for the thigh muscles.","clinical":["Pain in the groin and difficulty standing after a fall in an older adult can appear in a femoral neck fracture.","Examined using X-ray, CT, and bone density testing.","Common conditions: femoral neck fracture, mainly in people with osteoporosis."],"fact":"Its length is about a quarter of the body's height."},"patella-l":{"where":"At the front of the left knee, a small triangular bone found within the tendon of the quadriceps muscle. When the knee is relaxed, it can be felt and moved slightly.","role":"Protects the knee joint and increases the leverage of the quadriceps muscle when it straightens the knee.","clinical":["Pain at the front of the knee when climbing stairs or sitting for a long time can appear in patellofemoral pain syndrome.","Examined using physical examination, X-ray, and MRI.","Common conditions: patellar dislocation, fracture from a fall onto the knee, and patellar tendinitis."],"fact":"The patella is the largest sesamoid bone in the body, meaning a bone that develops within a tendon."},"patella-r":{"where":"At the front of the right knee, a small triangular bone found within the tendon of the quadriceps muscle. When the knee is relaxed, it can be felt and moved slightly.","role":"Protects the knee joint and increases the leverage of the quadriceps muscle when it straightens the knee.","clinical":["Pain at the front of the knee when climbing stairs or sitting for a long time can appear in patellofemoral pain syndrome.","Examined using physical examination, X-ray, and MRI.","Common conditions: patellar dislocation, fracture from a fall onto the knee, and patellar tendinitis."],"fact":"The patella is the largest sesamoid bone in the body, meaning a bone that develops within a tendon."},"tibia-l":{"where":"In the left lower leg, on the inner side, between the knee and the ankle. Its sharp front edge can be felt along the entire length of the lower leg, just beneath the skin.","role":"The weight-bearing bone of the lower leg. Above, it forms the knee joint with the femur, and below, it forms the inner ankle bone and the ankle joint.","clinical":["Pain along the inner side of the lower leg in runners can appear in stress on the periosteum (shin splints) or a stress fracture.","Examined using X-ray, and sometimes bone scan or MRI.","The tibia is the long bone that is fractured most often, because at the front it is not covered by muscles."]},"tibia-r":{"where":"In the right lower leg, on the inner side, between the knee and the ankle. Its sharp front edge can be felt along the entire length of the lower leg, just beneath the skin.","role":"The weight-bearing bone of the lower leg. Above, it forms the knee joint with the femur, and below, it forms the inner ankle bone and the ankle joint.","clinical":["Pain along the inner side of the lower leg in runners can appear in stress on the periosteum (shin splints) or a stress fracture.","Examined using X-ray, and sometimes bone scan or MRI.","The tibia is the long bone that is fractured most often, because at the front it is not covered by muscles."]},"fibula-l":{"where":"In the left lower leg, on the outer side, next to the tibia. Its lower end is the bony bump on the outer side of the ankle.","role":"A thin bone that bears almost no weight. It serves as an attachment point for muscles and stabilizes the ankle joint from the outside.","clinical":["Pain and swelling on the outer side of the ankle after a sprain can appear in a fracture of the lower end of the fibula.","Weakness in lifting the foot can appear from pressure on the peroneal nerve, which wraps around the neck of the fibula.","Examined using X-ray."]},"fibula-r":{"where":"In the right lower leg, on the outer side, next to the tibia. Its lower end is the bony bump on the outer side of the ankle.","role":"A thin bone that bears almost no weight. It serves as an attachment point for muscles and stabilizes the ankle joint from the outside.","clinical":["Pain and swelling on the outer side of the ankle after a sprain can appear in a fracture of the lower end of the fibula.","Weakness in lifting the foot can appear from pressure on the peroneal nerve, which wraps around the neck of the fibula.","Examined using X-ray."]},"deltoid-l":{"where":"A thick, rounded muscle that covers the left shoulder from the front, side, and back. It originates from the clavicle and the scapula and attaches at the middle of the humerus.","role":"Lifts the arm sideways. Its front part moves the arm forward, and its back part moves the arm backward.","clinical":["Weakness in lifting the arm sideways can appear from injury to the axillary nerve, for example after a shoulder dislocation.","The deltoid muscle is a common site for intramuscular injections, for example of vaccines.","Examined with a physical examination of strength and movement."]},"deltoid-r":{"where":"A thick, rounded muscle that covers the right shoulder from the front, side, and back. It originates from the clavicle and the scapula and attaches at the middle of the humerus.","role":"Lifts the arm sideways. Its front part moves the arm forward, and its back part moves the arm backward.","clinical":["Weakness in lifting the arm sideways can appear from injury to the axillary nerve, for example after a shoulder dislocation.","The deltoid muscle is a common site for intramuscular injections, for example of vaccines.","Examined with a physical examination of strength and movement."]},"pectoralis-major-l":{"where":"At the front of the chest on the left side, a broad, fan-shaped muscle. It originates from the clavicle, the sternum, and the rib cartilages, and attaches at the upper part of the humerus. Its lower edge forms the front fold of the armpit.","role":"Brings the arm toward the body, moves it forward, and rotates it inward, as in a hug or a push.","clinical":["Sudden pain in the chest and arm while lifting a heavy weight can appear in a tear of its tendon.","Pain in the muscle itself, which worsens with arm movements, can be a non-cardiac source of chest pain.","Examined with physical examination, ultrasound, and MRI."]},"pectoralis-major-r":{"where":"At the front of the chest on the right side, a broad, fan-shaped muscle. It originates from the clavicle, the sternum, and the rib cartilages, and attaches at the upper part of the humerus. Its lower edge forms the front fold of the armpit.","role":"Brings the arm toward the body, moves it forward, and rotates it inward, as in a hug or a push.","clinical":["Sudden pain in the chest and arm while lifting a heavy weight can appear in a tear of its tendon.","Pain in the muscle itself, which worsens with arm movements, can be a non-cardiac source of chest pain.","Examined with physical examination, ultrasound, and MRI."]},"biceps-brachii-l":{"where":"At the front of the left arm, between the shoulder and the elbow. The muscle has two heads that originate from the scapula, and they join into a tendon that attaches to the radius, just below the elbow.","role":"Bends the elbow and rotates the forearm so the palm faces upward, as in turning a screw.","clinical":["A rounded bulge in the arm after a sudden tearing sensation can appear in a rupture of the long head tendon.","The biceps reflex, tested by tapping its tendon at the elbow, checks the fifth and sixth cervical nerve roots.","Examined with physical examination and ultrasound."]},"biceps-brachii-r":{"where":"On the front of the right arm, between the shoulder and the elbow. The muscle has two heads that arise from the scapula, and they join into one tendon that attaches to the radius, just below the elbow.","role":"Bends the elbow and turns the forearm so the palm faces up, like turning a screwdriver.","clinical":["A round bulge in the arm after a sudden tearing sensation can appear when the tendon of the long head ruptures.","The biceps reflex, tapping its tendon at the elbow, tests the fifth and sixth cervical nerve roots.","Checked by physical examination and ultrasound."]},"triceps-brachii-l":{"where":"On the back of the left arm, the only muscle in its posterior part. Its three heads originate from the scapula and the humerus, and attach to the olecranon of the ulna.","role":"Straightens the elbow, for example when pushing, doing push-ups, or getting up from a chair using the hands.","clinical":["Weakness in straightening the elbow can occur with injury to the radial nerve.","The triceps reflex, tapping its tendon at the back of the elbow, tests the seventh cervical nerve root.","Checked by physical examination of strength and reflexes."]},"triceps-brachii-r":{"where":"On the back of the right arm, the only muscle in its posterior part. Its three heads originate from the scapula and the humerus, and attach to the olecranon of the ulna.","role":"Straightens the elbow, for example when pushing, doing push-ups, or getting up from a chair using the hands.","clinical":["Weakness in straightening the elbow can occur with injury to the radial nerve.","The triceps reflex, tapping its tendon at the back of the elbow, tests the seventh cervical nerve root.","Checked by physical examination of strength and reflexes."]},"gluteus-maximus-l":{"where":"In the left buttock, the large superficial muscle that gives the buttock its shape. It arises from the back of the pelvic bone, the sacrum and the coccyx, and attaches to the femur and the iliotibial band.","role":"Straightens the hip and pushes the body forward and upward when climbing stairs, running, and rising from a sitting position, and stabilizes the pelvis.","clinical":["Pain in the buttock radiating to the leg can occur from pressure on the sciatic nerve, which passes beneath this muscle.","The upper-outer quadrant of the buttock is a common site for intramuscular injection, because it is far from the sciatic nerve.","Checked by physical examination of strength and gait."]},"gluteus-maximus-r":{"where":"In the right buttock, the large superficial muscle that gives the buttock its shape. It arises from the back of the pelvic bone, the sacrum and the coccyx, and attaches to the femur and the iliotibial band.","role":"Straightens the hip and pushes the body forward and upward when climbing stairs, running, and rising from a sitting position, and stabilizes the pelvis.","clinical":["Pain in the buttock radiating to the leg can occur from pressure on the sciatic nerve, which passes beneath this muscle.","The upper-outer quadrant of the buttock is a common site for intramuscular injection, because it is far from the sciatic nerve.","Checked by physical examination of strength and gait."]},"rectus-femoris-l":{"where":"On the front of the left thigh, in the center. This is one of the four heads of the quadriceps muscle: it arises from the pelvic bone and attaches through the patellar tendon to the tibia.","role":"The only head of the quadriceps that also crosses the hip joint: it straightens the knee and bends the hip, as in kicking.","clinical":["Pain in the front of the thigh during sprinting or kicking can occur with a strain or tear of the muscle.","The knee reflex, tapping the patellar tendon, tests the quadriceps muscle and the third and fourth lumbar nerve roots.","Checked by physical examination and ultrasound."]},"rectus-femoris-r":{"where":"On the front of the right thigh, in the center. This is one of the four heads of the quadriceps muscle: it arises from the pelvic bone and attaches through the patellar tendon to the tibia.","role":"The only head of the quadriceps that also crosses the hip joint: it straightens the knee and bends the hip, as in kicking.","clinical":["Pain in the front of the thigh during sprinting or kicking can occur with a strain or tear of the muscle.","The knee reflex, tapping the patellar tendon, tests the quadriceps muscle and the third and fourth lumbar nerve roots.","Checked by physical examination and ultrasound."]},"vastus-lateralis-l":{"where":"On the outer side of the left thigh. This is the largest head of the quadriceps muscle: it arises from the upper part of the femur and runs down to the patella, alongside the rectus femoris.","role":"Straightens the knee together with the other heads of the quadriceps and stabilizes the patella during movement. It is important for rising from sitting, climbing stairs, and running.","clinical":["The middle of the outer thigh is a common site for intramuscular injection, especially in infants.","Weakness of the quadriceps is felt as difficulty rising from a chair or climbing stairs.","Checked by physical examination of knee extension strength and by ultrasound."]},"vastus-lateralis-r":{"where":"On the outer side of the right thigh. This is the largest head of the quadriceps muscle: it arises from the upper part of the femur and runs down to the patella, alongside the rectus femoris.","role":"Straightens the knee together with the other heads of the quadriceps and stabilizes the patella during movement. It is important for rising from sitting, climbing stairs, and running.","clinical":["The middle of the outer thigh is a common site for intramuscular injection, especially in infants.","Weakness of the quadriceps is felt as difficulty rising from a chair or climbing stairs.","Checked by physical examination of knee extension strength and by ultrasound."]},"vastus-medialis-l":{"where":"On the inner side of the left thigh, above the knee. Its lower part forms a teardrop-shaped bulge above the inner side of the patella.","role":"Straightens the knee together with the other heads of the quadriceps. Its lower fibers pull the patella inward and keep it moving straight within the groove of the femur.","clinical":["Pain at the front of the knee, around the patella, can occur when the patella does not track straight, and is sometimes linked to weakness of this muscle.","After a knee injury or surgery, this muscle tends to lose bulk quickly, and the difference in size is seen compared with the other leg.","Checked by physical examination of the knee and by ultrasound."]},"vastus-medialis-r":{"where":"On the inner side of the right thigh, above the knee. Its lower part forms a teardrop-shaped bulge above the inner side of the patella.","role":"Straightens the knee together with the other heads of the quadriceps. Its lower fibers pull the patella inward and keep it moving straight within the groove of the femur.","clinical":["Pain at the front of the knee, around the patella, can occur when the patella does not track straight, and is sometimes linked to weakness of this muscle.","After a knee injury or surgery, this muscle tends to lose bulk quickly, and the difference in size is seen compared with the other leg.","Checked by physical examination of the knee and by ultrasound."]},"vastus-intermedius-l":{"where":"Deep in the front of the left thigh, beneath the rectus femoris and between the vastus lateralis and vastus medialis. It lies directly against the front of the shaft of the femur.","role":"Straightens the knee together with the other heads of the quadriceps. The four heads join into a single tendon that wraps around the patella and attaches to the tibia.","clinical":["A direct blow to the front of the thigh can cause bruising and bleeding in this muscle, because it is pressed between the blow and the bone.","Pain in the front of the thigh on full bending of the knee can occur after such an injury.","Checked by physical examination and ultrasound, and sometimes by X-ray when calcification within the muscle is suspected."]},"vastus-intermedius-r":{"where":"Deep in the front of the right thigh, beneath the rectus femoris and between the vastus lateralis and vastus medialis. It lies directly against the front of the shaft of the femur.","role":"Extends the knee together with the other heads of the quadriceps muscle. The four heads join into a single tendon that wraps around the patella and attaches to the tibia.","clinical":["A direct blow to the front of the thigh can cause bruising and bleeding in this muscle, because it is pressed between the impact and the bone.","Pain in the front of the thigh on full bending of the knee can appear after such an injury.","Examined by physical examination and ultrasound, and sometimes by X-ray when calcification within the muscle is suspected."]},"gastrocnemius-l":{"where":"On the back of the left calf, the superficial muscle that forms the bulge of the calf. Its two heads originate above the knee, on the femur, and join together with the soleus muscle to form the Achilles tendon, which attaches to the heel bone.","role":"Flexes the foot downward, as in standing on tiptoe, and helps bend the knee. It is essential for jumping, running and walking.","clinical":["Sudden pain in the back of the calf during sports can occur with a tear of the medial head of the muscle.","Swelling and pain in one calf can occur in deep vein thrombosis, and are therefore examined by ultrasound.","The Achilles reflex, tested by tapping the tendon, examines these calf muscles and the first sacral nerve root."]},"gastrocnemius-r":{"where":"On the back of the right calf, the superficial muscle that forms the bulge of the calf. Its two heads originate above the knee, on the femur, and join together with the soleus muscle to form the Achilles tendon, which attaches to the heel bone.","role":"Flexes the foot downward, as in standing on tiptoe, and helps bend the knee. It is essential for jumping, running and walking.","clinical":["Sudden pain in the back of the calf during sports can occur with a tear of the medial head of the muscle.","Swelling and pain in one calf can occur in deep vein thrombosis, and are therefore examined by ultrasound.","The Achilles reflex, tested by tapping the tendon, examines these calf muscles and the first sacral nerve root."]},"trapezius-l":{"where":"In the upper back and the nape of the neck, on the left side, a broad, superficial, triangle-shaped muscle. It stretches from the base of the skull and the cervical and thoracic vertebrae to the clavicle and the scapula.","role":"Raises the shoulders, draws the shoulder blades together, and rotates the shoulder blade to allow the arm to be raised above the head.","clinical":["Pain and tension in the nape of the neck and upper shoulders can occur from strain on the trapezius muscle, for example from prolonged sitting in front of a screen.","Weakness in pulling the shoulder upward can occur with injury to the accessory nerve, the 11th cranial nerve.","Examined by physical examination."]},"trapezius-r":{"where":"In the upper back and the nape of the neck, on the right side, a broad, superficial, triangle-shaped muscle. It stretches from the base of the skull and the cervical and thoracic vertebrae to the clavicle and the scapula.","role":"Raises the shoulders, draws the shoulder blades together, and rotates the shoulder blade to allow the arm to be raised above the head.","clinical":["Pain and tension in the nape of the neck and upper shoulders can occur from strain on the trapezius muscle, for example from prolonged sitting in front of a screen.","Weakness in pulling the shoulder upward can occur with injury to the accessory nerve, the 11th cranial nerve.","Examined by physical examination."]},"skin":{"where":"Covers the entire body from outside and continues into mucous membrane at the body's openings. In the model it is shown as a transparent envelope, so the organs can be seen through it.","role":"The largest organ in the body. It protects against bacteria, radiation and fluid loss, regulates body temperature, senses touch, pain and temperature, and produces vitamin D.","clinical":["Rash, itching and change in skin color can occur in skin diseases and also in systemic diseases.","Examined by visual inspection and dermatoscope, and sometimes by biopsy.","Common conditions: acne, eczema, psoriasis and moles."],"fact":"The skin area of an adult is about 1.5 to 2 square meters."},"portal-vein":{"where":"In the upper abdomen, behind the neck of the pancreas and below the liver. It is formed by the union of the superior mesenteric vein and the splenic vein, and enters the liver at the porta hepatis, where it branches.","role":"Carries blood to the liver from the stomach, intestines, pancreas and spleen, along with absorbed nutrients, so the liver can process them before they reach the rest of the body.","clinical":["Enlargement of the spleen and esophageal varices can occur in portal hypertension, for example in liver cirrhosis.","Examined by Doppler ultrasound and CT."],"fact":"About three-quarters of the blood reaching the liver arrives through the portal vein, and the rest through the hepatic artery."},"testis-l":{"where":"In the scrotum, outside the abdominal cavity, on the left side, usually slightly lower than the right testis. The epididymis lies directly behind it.","role":"Produces sperm cells and the hormone testosterone.","clinical":["Sudden, severe pain in the testis can occur in testicular torsion, a condition requiring urgent examination.","Examined by physical examination and ultrasound.","Common conditions: epididymitis, varicocele, more common on the left side, and fluid accumulation around the testis."]},"testis-r":{"where":"In the scrotum, outside the abdominal cavity, on the right side, usually slightly higher than the left testis. The epididymis lies directly behind it.","role":"Produces sperm cells and the hormone testosterone.","clinical":["Sudden, severe pain in the testis can occur in testicular torsion, a condition requiring urgent examination.","Examined by physical examination and ultrasound.","Common conditions: epididymitis, varicocele, more common on the left side, and fluid accumulation around the testis."]},"common-carotid-l":{"where":"In the neck, to the left of the trachea and larynx, within a shared sheath with the internal jugular vein and the vagus nerve. It arises directly from the aortic arch, and at about the level of the upper border of the thyroid cartilage it divides into the internal carotid artery and the external carotid artery.","role":"Carries blood to the head and neck, mainly to the brain via the internal carotid artery.","clinical":["The carotid pulse is felt in the neck, between the trachea and the sternocleidomastoid muscle.","Narrowing of the carotid arteries is examined by Doppler ultrasound of the neck.","Atherosclerotic narrowing at the artery's division point is one of the causes of stroke."]},"common-carotid-r":{"where":"In the neck, to the right of the trachea and larynx, within a shared sheath with the internal jugular vein and the vagus nerve. It arises from the brachiocephalic trunk, and at about the level of the upper border of the thyroid cartilage it divides into the internal carotid artery and the external carotid artery.","role":"Carries blood to the head and neck, mainly to the brain via the internal carotid artery.","clinical":["The carotid pulse is felt in the neck, between the trachea and the sternocleidomastoid muscle.","Narrowing of the carotid arteries is examined by Doppler ultrasound of the neck.","Atherosclerotic narrowing at the artery's division point is one of the causes of stroke."]},"radial-artery-l":{"where":"In the left forearm, on the thumb side. It arises from the brachial artery below the elbow and descends to the wrist, where it is superficial and easy to feel.","role":"Supplies blood to the forearm and hand, and together with the ulnar artery forms the arterial arches of the hand.","clinical":["The radial pulse, at the wrist on the thumb side, is the most common site for measuring pulse.","Many cardiac catheterizations and arterial blood samples are taken through this artery.","Examined by palpation and Doppler ultrasound."]},"radial-artery-r":{"where":"In the right forearm, on the thumb side. It branches from the brachial artery below the elbow and runs down to the wrist, where it is superficial and easy to feel.","role":"Supplies blood to the forearm and hand, and together with the ulnar artery forms the arterial arches of the hand.","clinical":["The radial pulse, at the wrist on the thumb side, is the most common site for measuring the pulse.","This artery is used for many cardiac catheterizations and arterial blood sampling.","Examined by palpation and Doppler ultrasound."]},"femoral-artery-l":{"where":"In the front of the left thigh. It enters the thigh below the inguinal ligament, midway between the pubic bone and the anterior superior iliac spine, and descends toward the inner side of the knee.","role":"The main artery of the leg. Supplies blood to the thigh, and beyond it, as the popliteal artery, also to the lower leg and foot.","clinical":["The femoral pulse is felt in the groin.","This artery is used for many cardiac and vascular catheterizations.","Calf pain during walking that eases with rest can occur with atherosclerotic narrowing of the leg arteries."]},"femoral-artery-r":{"where":"In the front of the right thigh. It enters the thigh below the inguinal ligament, midway between the pubic bone and the anterior superior iliac spine, and descends toward the inner side of the knee.","role":"The main artery of the leg. Supplies blood to the thigh, and beyond it, as the popliteal artery, also to the lower leg and foot.","clinical":["The femoral pulse is felt in the groin.","This artery is used for many cardiac and vascular catheterizations.","Calf pain during walking that eases with rest can occur with atherosclerotic narrowing of the leg arteries."]},"calcaneal-tendon-l":{"where":"On the back of the left ankle, above the heel. This is the shared tendon of the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles, and it attaches to the back of the heel bone.","role":"Transmits the force of the calf muscles to the heel, allowing standing on tiptoe, jumping, and pushing the body forward while walking.","clinical":["Pain at the back of the heel in the morning or at the start of running can occur with Achilles tendinitis.","A sudden feeling of being struck at the back of the heel, with difficulty standing on tiptoe, can occur with a tendon rupture.","Examined by physical exam, including squeezing the calf muscle, and by ultrasound."],"fact":"This is the thickest and strongest tendon in the body."},"calcaneal-tendon-r":{"where":"On the back of the right ankle, above the heel. This is the shared tendon of the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles, and it attaches to the back of the heel bone.","role":"Transmits the force of the calf muscles to the heel, allowing standing on tiptoe, jumping, and pushing the body forward while walking.","clinical":["Pain at the back of the heel in the morning or at the start of running can occur with Achilles tendinitis.","A sudden feeling of being struck at the back of the heel, with difficulty standing on tiptoe, can occur with a tendon rupture.","Examined by physical exam, including squeezing the calf muscle, and by ultrasound."],"fact":"This is the thickest and strongest tendon in the body."},"median-cubital-vein-l":{"where":"In the front of the left elbow, just under the skin. A diagonal vein connecting the cephalic vein to the basilic vein.","role":"Part of the superficial veins of the arm, which return blood from the forearm and hand.","clinical":["This is the most common site for blood tests and inserting an IV line, because the vein is large, superficial, and relatively stable.","Examined by inspection and palpation."]},"median-cubital-vein-r":{"where":"In the front of the right elbow, just under the skin. A diagonal vein connecting the cephalic vein to the basilic vein.","role":"Part of the superficial veins of the arm, which return blood from the forearm and hand.","clinical":["This is the most common site for blood tests and inserting an IV line, because the vein is large, superficial, and relatively stable.","Examined by inspection and palpation."]},"generic":{"skin":{"role":"The skin, which covers and protects the body."},"skeleton":{"role":"Part of the skeleton: a bone, cartilage, or ligament that gives the body structure and support, protects organs, and serves as an attachment point for muscles."},"muscles":{"role":"A skeletal muscle or tendon: contracts under voluntary control, pulls on the bones it attaches to, and moves the joints."},"artery":{"role":"An artery: carries blood from the heart to the organs. In all arteries except the pulmonary arteries, the blood is rich in oxygen."},"vein":{"role":"A vein: returns blood from the organs to the heart. In all veins except the pulmonary veins, the blood is low in oxygen."},"cardio":{"role":"Part of the cardiovascular system, which pumps blood throughout the body."},"respiratory":{"role":"Part of the respiratory system: carries air to and from the lungs, produces sound, or protects the airway."},"digestive":{"role":"Part of the digestive system: takes part in chewing, swallowing, breaking down food, absorbing it, or secreting digestive juices."},"urinary":{"role":"Part of the urinary system, which filters the blood and removes waste and excess fluid in the urine."},"nervous":{"role":"Part of the central nervous system, which receives information from the body, processes it, and controls movement, thought, and emotion."},"endocrine":{"role":"A gland of the endocrine system: secretes hormones into the blood that regulate functions throughout the body."},"reproductive":{"role":"Part of the male reproductive system: produces sperm cells, transports them, or secretes seminal fluid."},"sensory":{"role":"Part of the visual system: receives light, moves the eye, or protects and lubricates it."},"lymph":{"role":"Part of the immune and lymphatic system: filters blood or lymph and produces immune cells."}}},"regions":[{"id":"head","he":"Head","blurb":"Inside the skull are the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the brainstem. In the face are the two eyes in their sockets, the tongue and the teeth, and the bones of the skull and the lower jaw protect them all.","labels":["frontal-lobe-l","temporal-lobe-r","cerebellum","pons","eyeball-l","frontal-bone","mandible","tongue"],"parts":["frontal-bone","mandible","eyeball-l","eyeball-r","frontal-lobe-l","frontal-lobe-r","parietal-lobe-l","parietal-lobe-r","temporal-lobe-l","temporal-lobe-r","occipital-lobe-l","occipital-lobe-r","midbrain","pons","medulla-oblongata","cerebellum","occipital-bone","sphenoid-bone","ethmoid-bone","vomer","parietal-bone-l","parietal-bone-r","temporal-bone-l","temporal-bone-r","maxilla-l","maxilla-r","zygomatic-bone-l","zygomatic-bone-r","nasal-bone-l","nasal-bone-r","lacrimal-bone-l","lacrimal-bone-r","palatine-bone-l","palatine-bone-r","inferior-nasal-concha-l","inferior-nasal-concha-r","nasal-cartilages","teeth-upper","teeth-lower","extraocular-muscles-l","extraocular-muscles-r","genioglossus-l","genioglossus-r","hyoglossus-l","hyoglossus-r","soft-palate-muscles","tongue","gingiva","sublingual-gland-l","sublingual-gland-r","lacrimal-apparatus-l","lacrimal-apparatus-r","eyelid-plates-l","eyelid-plates-r","insula-l","insula-r","limbic-l","limbic-r","cerebral-white-matter-l","cerebral-white-matter-r","basal-ganglia-l","basal-ganglia-r","thalamus-l","thalamus-r","hypothalamus","corpus-callosum","ventricles","pituitary","pineal","optic-nerve-l","optic-nerve-r","orbital-nerves-l","orbital-nerves-r","cerebral-arteries"],"box":[[-0.0762,1.4997,-0.1188],[0.0749,1.7144,0.1077]]},{"id":"neck","he":"Neck","blurb":"In the neck are the larynx and the hyoid bone, the carotid arteries and the jugular veins, and the vertebrae of the cervical spine. The thyroid gland, which is not shown in the model, sits just below the thyroid cartilage.","labels":["thyroid-cartilage","hyoid","common-carotid-l","internal-jugular-vein-r","sternocleidomastoid-l","vertebra-c4"],"parts":["hyoid","vertebra-c1","vertebra-c2","vertebra-c3","vertebra-c4","vertebra-c5","vertebra-c6","vertebra-c7","disks-cervical","digastric-l","digastric-r","mylohyoid-l","mylohyoid-r","geniohyoid-l","geniohyoid-r","stylohyoid-l","stylohyoid-r","sternohyoid-l","sternohyoid-r","sternothyroid-l","sternothyroid-r","thyrohyoid-l","thyrohyoid-r","omohyoid-l","omohyoid-r","sternocleidomastoid-l","sternocleidomastoid-r","platysma-l","platysma-r","scalenus-anterior-l","scalenus-anterior-r","scalenus-medius-l","scalenus-medius-r","scalenus-posterior-l","scalenus-posterior-r","longus-capitis-l","longus-capitis-r","longus-colli-l","rectus-capitis-anterior-l","rectus-capitis-anterior-r","rectus-capitis-lateralis-l","rectus-capitis-lateralis-r","suboccipital-muscles-l","suboccipital-muscles-r","splenius-l","splenius-r","semispinalis-l","semispinalis-r","levator-scapulae-l","levator-scapulae-r","superior-pharyngeal-constrictor-l","superior-pharyngeal-constrictor-r","middle-pharyngeal-constrictor-l","middle-pharyngeal-constrictor-r","inferior-pharyngeal-constrictor-l","inferior-pharyngeal-constrictor-r","pharynx-longitudinal-muscles-l","pharynx-longitudinal-muscles-r","cricothyroid-l","cricothyroid-r","laryngeal-muscles","thyroid-cartilage","cricoid-cartilage","arytenoid-cartilage-l","arytenoid-cartilage-r","epiglottis","vocal-fold-l","vocal-fold-r","larynx-membranes","submandibular-gland-l","submandibular-gland-r","common-carotid-l","common-carotid-r","internal-carotid-l","internal-carotid-r","vertebral-artery-l","vertebral-artery-r","subclavian-artery-l","subclavian-artery-r","internal-jugular-vein-l","internal-jugular-vein-r","subclavian-vein-l","subclavian-vein-r"],"box":[[-0.1468,1.1603,-0.1051],[0.1456,1.6158,0.0727]]},{"id":"chest","he":"Chest","blurb":"Inside the rib cage are the heart, most of which lies to the left of the midline, the two lungs, the trachea, the esophagus and the great blood vessels. The diaphragm closes the thorax from below.","labels":["heart","lung-l","lung-r","trachea","esophagus","aorta-thoracic","sternum","diaphragm"],"parts":["sternum","pectoralis-major-l","pectoralis-major-r","diaphragm","heart","trachea","lung-l","lung-r","esophagus","aorta-thoracic","superior-vena-cava","skin","rib-1-l","rib-1-r","rib-2-l","rib-2-r","rib-3-l","rib-3-r","rib-4-l","rib-4-r","rib-5-l","rib-5-r","rib-6-l","rib-6-r","rib-7-l","rib-7-r","rib-8-l","rib-8-r","rib-9-l","rib-9-r","rib-10-l","rib-10-r","rib-11-l","rib-11-r","rib-12-l","rib-12-r","costal-cartilages-l","costal-cartilages-r","pectoralis-minor-l","pectoralis-minor-r","subclavius-l","subclavius-r","serratus-anterior-l","serratus-anterior-r","external-intercostals-l","external-intercostals-r","internal-intercostals-l","internal-intercostals-r","innermost-intercostals-l","innermost-intercostals-r","transversus-thoracis-l","transversus-thoracis-r","bronchus-l","bronchus-r","bronchial-tree-l","bronchial-tree-r","thymus","pulmonary-trunk","pulmonary-artery-l","pulmonary-artery-r","brachiocephalic-trunk","internal-thoracic-artery-l","internal-thoracic-artery-r","intercostal-arteries-l","intercostal-arteries-r","pulmonary-veins-l","pulmonary-veins-r","brachiocephalic-vein-l","brachiocephalic-vein-r","azygos-system","chest-arteries-l","chest-arteries-r","chest-veins-l","chest-veins-r"],"box":[[-0.3339,0,-0.146],[0.3326,1.7193,0.1459]]},{"id":"abdomen","he":"Abdomen","blurb":"The abdomen contains most of the digestive organs: the liver and gallbladder on the right, the stomach and spleen on the left, the pancreas behind them, and the small and large intestines. Deep in the back lie the two kidneys.","labels":["liver","stomach","spleen","pancreas","gallbladder","colon-transverse","kidney-l","kidney-r"],"parts":["stomach","liver","gallbladder","pancreas","duodenum","jejunum","ileum","appendix","colon-ascending","colon-transverse","colon-descending","spleen","kidney-l","kidney-r","adrenal-l","adrenal-r","aorta-abdominal","inferior-vena-cava","external-oblique-l","external-oblique-r","psoas-major-l","psoas-major-r","linea-alba","bile-ducts","ureter-l","ureter-r","celiac-trunk","superior-mesenteric-artery","inferior-mesenteric-artery","renal-artery-l","renal-artery-r","inferior-phrenic-artery-l","inferior-phrenic-artery-r","testicular-artery-l","testicular-artery-r","portal-vein","hepatic-veins","renal-vein-l","renal-vein-r","testicular-vein-l","testicular-vein-r","abdomen-arteries-l","abdomen-arteries-r","abdomen-veins-l","abdomen-veins-r"],"box":[[-0.1406,0.7676,-0.0777],[0.1406,1.2897,0.1179]]},{"id":"pelvis","he":"Pelvis","blurb":"The pelvis is a ring of bone made up of the two hip bones and the sacrum. Inside it are the urinary bladder and the rectum, and in this male model also the prostate gland, with the testes located below it.","labels":["bladder","rectum","prostate","sacrum","hip-bone-l","hip-bone-r","gluteus-maximus-r","testis-l"],"parts":["sacrum","hip-bone-l","hip-bone-r","gluteus-maximus-l","gluteus-maximus-r","rectum","bladder","prostate","iliacus-l","iliacus-r","gluteus-medius-l","gluteus-medius-r","gluteus-minimus-l","gluteus-minimus-r","piriformis-l","piriformis-r","obturator-internus-l","obturator-internus-r","obturator-externus-l","obturator-externus-r","gemellus-superior-l","gemellus-superior-r","gemellus-inferior-l","gemellus-inferior-r","quadratus-femoris-l","quadratus-femoris-r","tensor-fasciae-latae-l","tensor-fasciae-latae-r","levator-ani-l","levator-ani-r","coccygeus-l","coccygeus-r","external-anal-sphincter","urethra","testis-l","testis-r","epididymis-l","epididymis-r","vas-deferens-l","vas-deferens-r","seminal-vesicle-l","seminal-vesicle-r","penis","common-iliac-artery-l","common-iliac-artery-r","internal-iliac-artery-l","internal-iliac-artery-r","external-iliac-artery-l","external-iliac-artery-r","common-iliac-vein-l","common-iliac-vein-r","internal-iliac-vein-l","internal-iliac-vein-r","external-iliac-vein-l","external-iliac-vein-r","penile-arteries","penile-veins","pelvis-arteries-l","pelvis-arteries-r"],"box":[[-0.16,0.7459,-0.1206],[0.16,1.1092,0.1001]]},{"id":"back","he":"Back","blurb":"Running through the back are the thoracic and lumbar spine, which protect the spinal cord within, and the back muscles that straighten the trunk and move the shoulder blades. The kidneys lie deep in the lower back, on either side of the spine.","labels":["vertebra-t6","vertebra-l3","trapezius-l","rhomboid-major-r","longissimus-l","iliocostalis-r"],"parts":["trapezius-l","trapezius-r","vertebra-t1","vertebra-t2","vertebra-t3","vertebra-t4","vertebra-t5","vertebra-t6","vertebra-t7","vertebra-t8","vertebra-t9","vertebra-t10","vertebra-t11","vertebra-t12","vertebra-l1","vertebra-l2","vertebra-l3","vertebra-l4","vertebra-l5","disks-thoracic","disks-lumbar","rhomboid-major-l","rhomboid-major-r","rhomboid-minor-l","rhomboid-minor-r","serratus-posterior-superior-l","serratus-posterior-superior-r","serratus-posterior-inferior-l","serratus-posterior-inferior-r","iliocostalis-l","iliocostalis-r","longissimus-l","longissimus-r","spinalis-l","spinalis-r","deep-back-muscles-l","deep-back-muscles-r"],"box":[[-0.1632,0.9085,-0.1253],[0.1632,1.5841,0.0152]]},{"id":"arm","he":"Arm","blurb":"The arm begins at the shoulder girdle, with the clavicle and the scapula, continues through the upper arm with the humerus, the forearm with the radius and ulna, and ends at the wrist, hand and fingers. The shoulder and arm muscles move it.","labels":["clavicle-l","scapula-r","humerus-l","radius-l","ulna-r","deltoid-r","biceps-brachii-l","triceps-brachii-r"],"parts":["clavicle-l","clavicle-r","scapula-l","scapula-r","humerus-l","humerus-r","radius-l","radius-r","ulna-l","ulna-r","deltoid-l","deltoid-r","biceps-brachii-l","biceps-brachii-r","triceps-brachii-l","triceps-brachii-r","scaphoid-l","scaphoid-r","lunate-l","lunate-r","triquetrum-l","triquetrum-r","pisiform-l","pisiform-r","trapezium-l","trapezium-r","trapezoid-l","trapezoid-r","capitate-l","capitate-r","hamate-l","hamate-r","metacarpal-1-l","metacarpal-1-r","metacarpal-2-l","metacarpal-2-r","metacarpal-3-l","metacarpal-3-r","metacarpal-4-l","metacarpal-4-r","metacarpal-5-l","metacarpal-5-r","finger-1-prox-l","finger-1-prox-r","finger-1-dist-l","finger-1-dist-r","finger-2-prox-l","finger-2-prox-r","finger-2-mid-l","finger-2-mid-r","finger-2-dist-l","finger-2-dist-r","finger-3-prox-l","finger-3-prox-r","finger-3-mid-l","finger-3-mid-r","finger-3-dist-l","finger-3-dist-r","finger-4-prox-l","finger-4-prox-r","finger-4-mid-l","finger-4-mid-r","finger-4-dist-l","finger-4-dist-r","finger-5-prox-l","finger-5-prox-r","finger-5-mid-l","finger-5-mid-r","finger-5-dist-l","finger-5-dist-r","forearm-interosseous-membrane-l","forearm-interosseous-membrane-r","supraspinatus-l","supraspinatus-r","infraspinatus-l","infraspinatus-r","subscapularis-l","subscapularis-r","teres-major-l","teres-major-r","teres-minor-l","teres-minor-r","coracobrachialis-l","coracobrachialis-r","brachialis-l","brachialis-r","anconeus-l","anconeus-r","brachioradialis-l","brachioradialis-r","pronator-teres-l","pronator-teres-r","flexor-carpi-radialis-l","flexor-carpi-radialis-r","palmaris-longus-l","palmaris-longus-r","flexor-carpi-ulnaris-l","flexor-carpi-ulnaris-r","flexor-digitorum-superficialis-l","flexor-digitorum-superficialis-r","flexor-digitorum-profundus-l","flexor-digitorum-profundus-r","flexor-pollicis-longus-l","flexor-pollicis-longus-r","pronator-quadratus-l","pronator-quadratus-r","supinator-l","supinator-r","extensor-carpi-radialis-longus-l","extensor-carpi-radialis-longus-r","extensor-carpi-radialis-brevis-l","extensor-carpi-radialis-brevis-r","extensor-carpi-ulnaris-l","extensor-carpi-ulnaris-r","extensor-digitorum-l","extensor-digitorum-r","extensor-digiti-minimi-l","extensor-digiti-minimi-r","extensor-indicis-l","extensor-indicis-r","abductor-pollicis-longus-l","abductor-pollicis-longus-r","extensor-pollicis-longus-l","extensor-pollicis-longus-r","extensor-pollicis-brevis-l","extensor-pollicis-brevis-r","thenar-muscles-l","thenar-muscles-r","adductor-pollicis-l","adductor-pollicis-r","hypothenar-muscles-l","hypothenar-muscles-r","hand-lumbricals-l","hand-lumbricals-r","hand-interossei-l","hand-interossei-r","flexor-retinaculum-l","flexor-retinaculum-r","axillary-artery-l","axillary-artery-r","brachial-artery-l","brachial-artery-r","radial-artery-l","radial-artery-r","ulnar-artery-l","ulnar-artery-r","hand-arteries-l","hand-arteries-r","axillary-vein-l","axillary-vein-r","brachial-veins-l","brachial-veins-r","forearm-deep-veins-l","forearm-deep-veins-r","cephalic-vein-l","cephalic-vein-r","basilic-vein-l","basilic-vein-r","median-cubital-vein-l","median-cubital-vein-r","hand-veins-l","hand-veins-r"],"box":[[-0.3244,0.7312,-0.1058],[0.3244,1.4336,0.0947]]},{"id":"leg","he":"Leg","blurb":"The leg includes the thigh with the femur, the knee with the patella, the lower leg with the tibia and fibula, and the foot with the ankle, heel and toe bones. The thigh and lower-leg muscles support the body and move it during walking.","labels":["femur-r","patella-l","tibia-l","fibula-r","rectus-femoris-l","gastrocnemius-r","calcaneus-l","femoral-artery-r"],"parts":["femur-l","femur-r","patella-l","patella-r","tibia-l","tibia-r","fibula-l","fibula-r","rectus-femoris-l","rectus-femoris-r","vastus-lateralis-l","vastus-lateralis-r","vastus-medialis-l","vastus-medialis-r","vastus-intermedius-l","vastus-intermedius-r","gastrocnemius-l","gastrocnemius-r","talus-l","talus-r","calcaneus-l","calcaneus-r","navicular-l","navicular-r","cuboid-l","cuboid-r","cuneiform-medial-l","cuneiform-medial-r","cuneiform-intermediate-l","cuneiform-intermediate-r","cuneiform-lateral-l","cuneiform-lateral-r","foot-sesamoids-l","foot-sesamoids-r","metatarsal-1-l","metatarsal-1-r","metatarsal-2-l","metatarsal-2-r","metatarsal-3-l","metatarsal-3-r","metatarsal-4-l","metatarsal-4-r","metatarsal-5-l","metatarsal-5-r","toe-1-prox-l","toe-1-prox-r","toe-1-dist-l","toe-1-dist-r","toe-2-prox-l","toe-2-prox-r","toe-2-mid-l","toe-2-mid-r","toe-2-dist-l","toe-2-dist-r","toe-3-prox-l","toe-3-prox-r","toe-3-mid-l","toe-3-mid-r","toe-3-dist-l","toe-3-dist-r","toe-4-prox-l","toe-4-prox-r","toe-4-mid-l","toe-4-mid-r","toe-4-dist-l","toe-4-dist-r","toe-5-prox-l","toe-5-prox-r","toe-5-mid-l","toe-5-mid-r","toe-5-dist-l","toe-5-dist-r","leg-interosseous-membrane-l","leg-interosseous-membrane-r","long-plantar-ligament-l","long-plantar-ligament-r","sartorius-l","sartorius-r","gracilis-l","gracilis-r","adductor-longus-l","adductor-longus-r","adductor-brevis-l","adductor-brevis-r","adductor-magnus-l","adductor-magnus-r","pectineus-l","pectineus-r","semitendinosus-l","semitendinosus-r","semimembranosus-l","semimembranosus-r","biceps-femoris-l","biceps-femoris-r","iliotibial-tract-l","iliotibial-tract-r","tibialis-anterior-l","tibialis-anterior-r","tibialis-posterior-l","tibialis-posterior-r","extensor-digitorum-longus-l","extensor-digitorum-longus-r","extensor-hallucis-longus-l","extensor-hallucis-longus-r","fibularis-longus-l","fibularis-longus-r","fibularis-brevis-l","fibularis-brevis-r","fibularis-tertius-l","fibularis-tertius-r","soleus-l","soleus-r","plantaris-l","plantaris-r","popliteus-l","popliteus-r","flexor-digitorum-longus-l","flexor-digitorum-longus-r","flexor-hallucis-longus-l","flexor-hallucis-longus-r","calcaneal-tendon-l","calcaneal-tendon-r","extensor-hallucis-brevis-l","extensor-hallucis-brevis-r","abductor-hallucis-l","abductor-hallucis-r","flexor-digitorum-brevis-l","flexor-digitorum-brevis-r","quadratus-plantae-l","quadratus-plantae-r","flexor-hallucis-brevis-l","flexor-hallucis-brevis-r","adductor-hallucis-l","adductor-hallucis-r","abductor-digiti-minimi-foot-l","abductor-digiti-minimi-foot-r","flexor-digiti-minimi-foot-l","flexor-digiti-minimi-foot-r","foot-lumbricals-l","foot-lumbricals-r","plantar-interossei-l","plantar-interossei-r","femoral-artery-l","femoral-artery-r","popliteal-artery-l","popliteal-artery-r","anterior-tibial-artery-l","anterior-tibial-artery-r","posterior-tibial-artery-l","posterior-tibial-artery-r","dorsalis-pedis-artery-l","dorsalis-pedis-artery-r","plantar-arteries-l","plantar-arteries-r","femoral-vein-l","femoral-vein-r","popliteal-vein-l","popliteal-vein-r","great-saphenous-vein-l","great-saphenous-vein-r","small-saphenous-vein-l","small-saphenous-vein-r","tibial-veins-l","tibial-veins-r","foot-veins-l","foot-veins-r","leg-veins-l","leg-veins-r"],"box":[[-0.1704,0.0012,-0.095],[0.1704,1.0367,0.1353]]}],"quadrants":[{"id":"ruq","he":"Right upper quadrant","en":"RUQ","organs":["liver","gallbladder","bile-ducts","duodenum","pancreas","kidney-r","adrenal-r","colon-ascending","colon-transverse"],"also":["The head of the pancreas, the part of the pancreas that lies within the curve of the duodenum","The hepatic flexure of the colon, between the ascending colon and the transverse colon"],"clinical":"Pain in the right upper quadrant can occur in diseases of the gallbladder and bile ducts or of the liver, and sometimes in duodenal ulcer or a stone in the right kidney."},{"id":"luq","he":"Left upper quadrant","en":"LUQ","organs":["stomach","spleen","pancreas","kidney-l","adrenal-l","colon-transverse","colon-descending","jejunum"],"also":["The body and tail of the pancreas","The splenic flexure of the colon, between the transverse colon and the descending colon"],"clinical":"Pain in the left upper quadrant can occur in diseases of the stomach, the pancreas, or the spleen, for example after an injury, and sometimes in a stone in the left kidney."},{"id":"rlq","he":"Right lower quadrant","en":"RLQ","organs":["appendix","colon-ascending","ileum","ureter-r"],"also":["The cecum, which in the model is the lower part of the ascending colon","The right ovary and fallopian tube, in a woman (not in the male model)","The right inguinal canal"],"clinical":"Pain in the right lower quadrant can occur in appendicitis, in Crohn's disease at the end of the ileum, or in a stone in the right ureter, and in women also in diseases of the right ovary."},{"id":"llq","he":"Left lower quadrant","en":"LLQ","organs":["colon-descending","ureter-l"],"also":["The sigmoid colon, which in the model is included in the descending colon","The left ovary and fallopian tube, in a woman (not in the male model)","The left inguinal canal"],"clinical":"Pain in the left lower quadrant can occur in inflammation of outpouchings in the sigmoid colon or in a stone in the left ureter, and in women also in diseases of the left ovary."}],"sides":{"left":["heart","stomach","spleen","lung-l","kidney-l","adrenal-l","colon-descending","aorta-abdominal","pulmonary-trunk","ureter-l","testis-l"],"right":["liver","gallbladder","bile-ducts","appendix","colon-ascending","lung-r","kidney-r","adrenal-r","superior-vena-cava","inferior-vena-cava","ureter-r","testis-r"],"mid":["trachea","esophagus","sternum","diaphragm","aorta-thoracic","pancreas","duodenum","colon-transverse","bladder","rectum","prostate"],"note":{"heart":"The heart sits in the middle of the chest, behind the sternum, but about two-thirds of it, including its apex, point to the left. That's why the heartbeat is felt on the left side.","stomach":"Most of the stomach lies to the left of the midline, below the left ribs.","spleen":"The spleen lies entirely on the left side, behind the stomach and below the diaphragm.","lung-l":"The left lung has only two lobes, because the heart takes up some of the space on the left side.","kidney-l":"The left kidney sits a little higher than the right one.","colon-descending":"The descending colon runs along the left side of the abdomen.","aorta-abdominal":"The abdominal aorta runs slightly to the left of the midline, with the inferior vena cava running to its right.","pulmonary-trunk":"The pulmonary trunk leaves the right ventricle of the heart and rises to the left, left of the ascending aorta.","testis-l":"The left testis is usually a little lower than the right one.","liver":"Most of the liver is on the right side, below the right ribs, and only its left lobe crosses the midline.","gallbladder":"The gallbladder lies against the underside of the liver, on the right side.","bile-ducts":"The bile ducts descend from the liver to the duodenum, on the right side of the upper abdomen.","appendix":"The appendix is in the right lower quadrant, which is why appendicitis pain is usually felt on the lower right.","colon-ascending":"The ascending colon, with the cecum at its base, runs along the right side of the abdomen.","duodenum":"Most of the duodenum lies to the right of the midline, around the head of the pancreas.","lung-r":"The right lung has three lobes, and it is slightly wider than the left one.","kidney-r":"The right kidney sits a little lower than the left one, because the liver lies above it.","superior-vena-cava":"The superior vena cava lies to the right of the midline and enters the right atrium of the heart.","inferior-vena-cava":"The inferior vena cava rises to the right of the aorta and enters the right atrium of the heart.","trachea":"The trachea runs along the midline and branches into the right bronchus and the left bronchus.","esophagus":"The esophagus descends almost along the midline, curving slightly to the left on its way to the stomach.","sternum":"The sternum lies exactly on the midline, with the heart sitting behind it.","pancreas":"The head of the pancreas lies to the right of the midline, while its body and tail extend to the left, reaching the spleen.","colon-transverse":"The transverse colon crosses the abdomen from the right side to the left side.","bladder":"The bladder lies on the midline, behind the pubic bone."}},"terms":[{"he":"Anterior","en":"","desc":"Toward the front of the body. For example, the sternum is anterior to the heart."},{"he":"Posterior","en":"","desc":"Toward the back. For example, the spinal column is posterior to the esophagus."},{"he":"Superior","en":"","desc":"Closer to the head. For example, the lungs are superior to the diaphragm."},{"he":"Inferior","en":"","desc":"Closer to the feet. For example, the urinary bladder is inferior to the kidneys."},{"he":"Medial","en":"","desc":"Closer to the midline of the body. For example, the nose is medial to the eyes."},{"he":"Lateral","en":"","desc":"Farther from the midline, toward the side. For example, the ears are lateral to the eyes."},{"he":"Proximal","en":"","desc":"In the limbs: closer to where the limb attaches to the trunk. For example, the elbow is proximal to the wrist."},{"he":"Distal","en":"","desc":"In the limbs: farther from where the limb attaches to the trunk. For example, the fingers are distal to the wrist."},{"he":"Superficial","en":"","desc":"Closer to the surface of the body. For example, the skin is superficial to the muscles."},{"he":"Deep","en":"","desc":"Farther from the surface, deeper inward. For example, the lungs are deep to the ribs."},{"he":"Right","en":"","desc":"Always the patient's own right side, not the viewer's. When facing a person, their right side is opposite our left hand."},{"he":"Left","en":"","desc":"Always the patient's own left side. This is the side of the heart: about two-thirds of the heart, including its apex, lies to the left of the midline."},{"he":"Midline","en":"","desc":"An imaginary line that divides the body into right and left halves, passing through the nose, sternum and navel."},{"he":"Transverse plane","en":"","desc":"A horizontal cut that separates the upper part of the body from the lower part, as seen in CT images."}],"lang":"en"}